Malaysian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture (MJSA)

EFFECTS OF THE TOXICITIES OF ZN AND FE EXPOSURE ON THE GROWTHS OF MUNG BEAN (VIGNA RADIATA): AN EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORY STUDY

Journal: Malaysian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture (MJSA)
Author: Mohamad Izzuddin Mohd Hadir, Noraini Abu Bakar, Zackheus Anak Chengai, Muhd Ammar Ramlee, Muhd Aqil Syukran Baharuddin, Muzammil Mohd Latif, Rosimah Nulit, Wan Mohd Syazwan, Ahmad Dwi Setyawan, Chee Kong Yap

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/mjsa.01.2025.10.15

ABSTRACT

The stomatal opening in stems significantly increased, particularly with the higher Zn(50ppm)+Fe(50ppm) treatment, nearly doubling compared to the control. However, the stomatal opening in leaves showed a slight decrease with both Zn treatments. The different doses of Zn combined with Fe had a more obvious positive effect on the stomatal opening in stems than in leaves. These findings suggest that higher concentrations of Zn and Fe may enhance stomatal opening in stems, while the effect on leaves is less significant.

The representative microscopic images in Figure 2 illustrate leaf and stem stomatal apertures of mung bean (Vigna radiata) under different treatments: control (untreated), 25 ppm Zn + 25 ppm Fe, and 50 ppm Zn + 50 ppm Fe treatments. Stomatal apertures are observed in both leaf (a-c) and stem (e-f) tissues. Each image (a-f) represents the best replicate from a set of three replicates for each treatment. Visible changes in stomatal aperture size across treatments are evident, with a decrease in aperture size in the 25 ppm Zn + 25 ppm Fe treatment (b, f) and an increase in the 50 ppm Zn + 50 ppm Fe treatment (c, d). The measurements below each image denote the average stomatal aperture size (μm) for each condition.

3.2 Length

The length of the plants decreased when treated with Zn and Fe compared to the control, with both Zn treatments showing a reduction in length by about 1-1.2 cm. There was little difference between the effects of the Zn(25ppm)+Fe(25ppm) and Zn(50ppm)+Fe(50ppm) treatments on plant length, as both doses led to a similar decrease. These results suggest that adding Zn and Fe in the concentrations used negatively impacts plant length, with no significant difference between the two concentrations

3.3 Leaves Count

The number of leaves decreased when treated with Zn and Fe compared to the control, with the leaf count dropping from 16.67 in the control to 12 in the Zn(25ppm)+Fe(25ppm) treatment. The Zn(50ppm)+Fe(50ppm) treatment resulted in a slightly higher leaf count of 13.33, but it was still lower than the control. The different doses of Zn combined with Fe negatively impacted the number of leaves, with a more pronounced reduction observed at the lower concentration. These findings suggest that the application of Zn and Fe, particularly at lower concentrations, reduces the number of leaves in plants.

3.1 Biomass

This bar graph shows the effect of different treatments on biomass. The control group has the highest biomass, with a value of 6.86 grams, while the treatments with Zinc (Zn) and Iron (Fe) lead to reduced biomass. The biomass decreases when treated with Zn and Fe compared to the control, showing a reduction of around 1.5 times. Different doses of Zn (25 ppm and 50 ppm) combined with Fe (25 ppm and 50 ppm) showed a negative effect on biomass, resulting in decreased biomass values of 5.3 grams and 5.14 grams, respectively. These findings suggest that treatment with Zn and Fe at the given concentrations reduces biomass compared to the control, indicating a negative impact on plant growth.

4.DISCUSSION

For the stomatal opening at the leaf, the control group demonstrated a moderate average stomatal opening with minimal variability, indicating consistent stomatal function under normal, stress-free conditions. When Zn and Fe were introduced at 25ppm each, the average stomatal opening decreased compared to the control, with an increase in variability. Similarly, research on crop treatment with Iron (Fe) nanoparticles highlighted that the presence of high concentrations of Zn and Fe can influence stomatal functionality by increasing the rate of stomatal conductance and disruption of photosynthetic mechanisms (Moore et al., 2024). This suggests that the added micronutrients may have caused stress or disrupted normal physiological processes at this concentration, leading to reduced and more inconsistent stomatal openings. In more detail, Zinc interferes with photosynthetic processes, stomatal conductance, and various other essential metabolic functions (Chakraborty and Mishra, 2020). The higher variability implies that individual plants reacted differently to this treatment, possibly due to differences in tolerance or nutrient uptake efficiency.

At a higher concentration of 50 ppm for both Zn and Fe, the stomatal opening on the leaf increased slightly compared to the 25ppm treatment but remained below the control level. The reduced variability, relative to the 25ppm treatment, suggests a more uniform response among the plants, although the overall stomatal opening was still inhibited compared to the control. This indicates that while the plants may have partially adapted to the higher concentration, the overall stress or nutrient imbalance was not completely resolved, resulting in a persistent, though less pronounced, reduction in stomatal opening. From the treatment of both 25 ppm and 50 ppm Zn and Fe, we could also see the effect of the influence of water movement through the plant thus also affecting the stomatal opening in the plant. According to a study, under iron (Fe) deficiency of excessive uptake, plants appear to generate a signal that may impact water movement (water potential) within the plant (Barzana et al., 2020).

For the stomatal opening at the stem, in the control group, the stem exhibited a higher average stomatal opening than the leaf, with low variability, reflecting a healthy and stable physiological state. However, when Zn and Fe were applied at 25ppm, there was a noticeable decrease in stomatal opening on the stem, mirroring the response seen in the leaf. This suggests that the lower concentration of micronutrients may have inhibited normal stomatal function, possibly due to a stress response or inadequate nutrient levels. Micronutrient deficiency-induced oxidative stress and associated antioxidant responses of plants (Hou et al., 2019). The relatively low variability indicates a more uniform response among the plants on the stem compared to the leaf.

Interestingly, at the higher concentration of 50 ppm for both Zn and Fe, the stem showed a significant increase in stomatal opening compared to both the control and the 25p pm treatment. This indicates that the 50 ppm concentration had a stimulatory effect on stomatal activity in the stem, in contrast to the inhibitory effect observed on the leaf. The stimulatory effect on stomatal activity could be because of the production of signalling molecules that can promote stomatal opening whilst the inhibitory effect could be of levels of concentration that is considered toxic to the plants. The increased variability in this treatment suggests that while some plants responded positively to the higher concentration, others may have experienced stress or a different response, leading to varied outcomes. This differential response between the leaf and stem could be due to differences in how the micronutrients are distributed, absorbed, or utilized, with the stem potentially being more responsive to higher concentrations of Zn and Fe (Al-Hayami, 2024).

As for the average length of mung bean, the control group, which was treated with distilled water, exhibited the greatest average length of mung beans, indicating that without additional Zn and Fe, the plants achieved their maximum growth potential. When Zn and Fe were applied at 25ppm each, the average mung bean length decreased, likely reflecting a mild stress response where the added micronutrients may have interfered with normal physiological processes, resulting in stunted growth. For example, plants exposed to either excessive or insufficient levels of zinc may develop abnormalities (Ungadau et al., 2023). At the higher concentration of 50ppm for both Zn and Fe, the average length increased slightly compared to the 25ppm treatment but still fell short of the control group’s growth. A recent research on Linum uitatissimum (flax plants) exemplified that high Zn concentration can enhance growth metrics without reaching a threshold that could cause stress and stunt the growth process (Sadak and Bakry, 2020). This suggests that although the higher concentration may have mitigated some of the stress caused by the lower concentration, it was still insufficient to reach the growth levels observed in the control group. The plants likely experienced a nutrient imbalance or mild toxicity at these concentrations, which affected their growth.

The control group treated with distilled water had the highest average leaf count, showing moderate variability among the replicates. This indicates that without the addition of Zn and Fe, plants were able to maintain a relatively high and consistent level of leaf production. The application of Zn and Fe at 25 ppm each resulted in a lower average leaf count compared to the control. This decrease, combined with reduced variability among the replicates, suggests that this concentration might slightly inhibit leaf development. The reduced leaf production could be due to a mild stress response or the plants’ adjustment to the micronutrient levels. When the Zn and Fe concentrations were increased to 50ppm each, the average leaf count rose slightly compared to the 25ppm treatment but was still lower than the control. This treatment also showed the greatest variability among replicates, indicating an inconsistent response among the plants. This variability might suggest that some plants benefited from the higher micronutrient levels, while others may have experienced stress, leading to fewer leaves. The mixed response could be due to differences in the plant’s tolerance to higher micronutrient concentrations or possible micronutrient toxicity affecting some plants more than others (Sherpa et al., 2024b).

Lastly, for the total biomass of mung beans similarly, the control group had the highest total biomass of the mung beans, reflecting ideal growth conditions without additional Zn and Fe. When Zn and Fe were applied at 25ppm each, there was a significant reduction in total biomass. This decline is consistent with the observed decrease in average length, reinforcing the idea that the plants were under stress or faced a less-than-ideal nutrient environment (Kumar et al., 2023). At the higher concentration of 50 ppm for both Zn and Fe, the total biomass decreased slightly compared to the 25 ppm treatment. Comparably, research on Theobroma cacao (cocoa plants) indicated that treatment of Zn and Fe did not create noticeable impacts on total biomass but recorded some variations in leaves and stems. This suggested that the effect of Zn and Fe on biomass is inconsistent and dependent on specific environments. But, despite a minor increase in average length, this continued drop in biomass suggests that the higher concentration of micronutrients may have intensified the stress on the plants, likely due to toxicity or nutrient imbalances.

5. CONCLUSIONS

This study exhibited variations in stomatal opening, lengths, leaf count, and biomass of mung beans. In the control treatment without zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe), the stomatal opening remains functionally stable at the most optimum level with the highest average growth, leaves count, and total biomass. Exposure to 25 ppm Zn and Fe treatment showed a decrease in leaf and stem stomatal opening, length, and leaf counts but increased slightly in biomass, implying that this concentration inflicts stress or physiological disruption to mung beans. However, the exposure to 50 ppm zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) enhanced the stomatal opening on the stem. Still, it restricted the length, number of leaves, and biomass compared to the control treatment and 25 ppm treatment, indicating this concentration generated an inconsistent effect towards the mung beans. It is suggested that lower concentrations of Fe and Zn can promote growth while higher concentrations may inhibit their growth. Overall, mung bean represents a promising model system for studying the effect of Zn and Fe concentration on mung bean development leading to the observable effect of those minerals on such plants.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was initiated and monitored by Professor Yap Chee Kong and Dr Noraini Abu Bakar, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) under course BGY4403-1 Ecotoxicology.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Conceptualisation, C.K.Y. and N. A. B.; methodology, Z.A.C., M. I. M. H.; M. A. R; M. A. S. B.; and M. M. L; investigation, M. I. M. H.; M. A. R; M. A. S. B.; and M. M. L; writing-original draft preparation, M. I. M. H.; Z. A. C; M. A. R; M. A. S. B.; and M. M. L; data curation, M. I. M. H., Z. A. C. and M. M. L., visualisation, M. M. L, M. I. M. H.; M. A. R; and M. A. S. B.; supervision, N. A. B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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ENHANCING RURAL LIVELIHOODS THROUGH AGRO-BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION, SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE, AND HOMESTAY TOURISM IN THE TONS RIVER BASIN, GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Journal: Malaysian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture (MJSA)
Author: Vishwambhar Prasad Sati, Kiran Tripathi, Rajesh Bhatt, Manju Bhandari, Kamlesh Kumar, Surajit Banerjee

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/mjsa.01.2025.01.09

ABSTRACT

The Kamal River valley, located in Purola Taluk, is a fertile and crucial agro-climatic region often referred to as a lifeline for the local population. This valley is renowned for its production of red rice, which is cultivated with high yields. Fishing also serves as an important livelihood option for residents. Within the valley, Rama Sarain stands out for its exceptional rice productivity, supported by irrigated land. The Supin River catchment, also known as Shiktur Patti, is noted for the high production of apples, pears, potatoes, Rajma, as well as various vegetables, fruits, pulses, and grains. Our study focuses on several villages: Sweel, located in the Kamal Valley, is known for large-scale tomato cultivation; Gaichwan, situated in the Tons Valley, is recognized for its high-quality and abundant apples; and Sankari, Dharkot, and Osla, which lie in the Supin Valley, are noted for their abundant production of apples, potatoes, and Rajma. These villages, ranging in altitude from 1,300 to 2,750 meters, exhibit rich agro-biodiversity (Table 1). However, infrastructural facilities are severely lacking. While some villages are situated along roadsides, road conditions deteriorate significantly during the monsoon and post-monsoon periods. Educational institutions are sparse, and market facilities are inadequate, compounding the challenges faced by these rural communities.

*Road condition is worst. During rainy and post rainy seasons, road remains blocked.

Figure 2 illustrates four case study settlements situated along the Kamal River, Tons River, and Supin River. The agro-climate in these areas is diverse, varying with altitude, and supports the cultivation of numerous crop races and cultivars, with some crops achieving high production and productivity. Gangad village is known for its large-scale production of Rajma and potatoes, a trend also seen in Dharkot village. Gaichwan village stands out for its high apple and pear production, while Sweel village is noted for its abundant potato yields.

The houses are made of wood mainly deodar (coniferous tree). This region is rich in floral diversity. Forest types vary from subtropical to subtemperate and temperate and all these have high economic value. The high altitudinal regions above 3000 meters possess alpine pasturelands that remain open during the summer. In winter, these pasturelands are snow-capped. A variety of flowers and medicinal plants grow in these pasturelands, among which Hari Ki Dun and Kedar Kantha are prominent.

3.DATA COLLECTION AND SURVEY METHODS

This study primarily employed field surveys, focusing on a case study of five villages with household-level data collection. We surveyed 50 households, with 10 households from each village. The selection of villages was based on factors such as altitude, distance from the road, and crop types. Households were chosen using a purposive random sampling method. A structured questionnaire was developed to gather information from the head of each household on various aspects, including the number and types of crops grown, the area and production of each crop, irrigation practices, annual income from each crop, government subsidies, and market facilities. The average age of respondents was 45 years, and all were literate.

In addition to crop-related questions, the survey addressed other livelihood options. For livestock farming, questions covered the types and number of livestock, production of milk, meat, and wool, and income generated from these products. For homestay tourism, we inquired about the number of rooms available for guests, the facilities provided, the number of tourists staying annually, and income earned from homestays. Farmers were also interviewed about market facilities and the challenges they face in agriculture and selling their crop products.

The collected data were analyzed and processed to assess various aspects of crop cultivation and livelihood in the case study villages. We compiled a list of different crops grown, including their local, English, and scientific names. Agro-climatic zones were identified based on the crops grown in each village and their respective altitudes. We analyzed crop-specific data, including the area, production, and productivity for each village. Crops were ranked based on their productivity and suitability for different locations and altitudes.

A key aspect of the analysis was the economic valuation of principal crops. We calculated the total value of crop production by multiplying the amount produced by the market rate of each crop. The total value was then converted into USD for each household, allowing us to rank the economic contribution of each crop.

Additionally, we evaluated the role of livestock and homestay tourism in enhancing livelihoods. Government support in agriculture, such as pruning, fertilizers, and pesticides, along with the physical labour provided by farmers, contributes significantly to the benefits derived from crop production. A base map was created from satellite imagery, depicting two-dimensional landscapes that include rivers, agro-climatic zones, and land use.

4.RESULTS

4.1 Enhancing Rural Livelihoods

Rural livelihoods in the Tons River basin primarily depend on traditional agriculture, which currently does not produce enough output to meet the food needs of the population. Although recent efforts have focused on cultivating fruits and vegetables, these have not yet significantly addressed the needs of the growing population. This paper proposes that enhancing livelihoods can be achieved through the conservation of agro-biodiversity and the adoption of sustainable agriculture practices. Specifically, cultivating principal crops such as tomatoes, apples, potatoes, and Rajma, along with various subsidiary crops suited to the local agro-climate and altitudes, can improve productivity and food security. Additionally, integrating livestock farming and promoting homestay tourism along major trekking routes and in areas of cultural and natural significance could further enhance livelihoods in the Tons River basin. Since this region is rich in floral diversity and their economic value is very high, thus, the sustainable use of timber and non-timber products will enhance rural livelihood. The key livelihood options are summarized and discussed in this paper.

4.2 Conservation of Agro-biodiversity

Agro-biodiversity in the Tons River basin is notably rich, as detailed in Table 2. We have identified 47 crop races and cultivars, which include 7 races of food grains, 16 races of vegetables, 6 races of fruits, 3 races of oilseeds, 4 races of spices, and 10 races of pulses. There may be additional crops not listed here. Under mixed cropping system, 12 or more than 12 crops are grown together in a single crop field. This system is called ‘Barahnaja system’. These crops offer significant economic and nutritional value, many of which are traditional varieties. It is essential to conserve these traditional crops while also cultivating cash crops. Both types of crops are crucial in the Tons River basin, given its diverse agro-climate, which supports the cultivation of these crops with high production and productivity.

*Total 47 crops are listed here. Source: By authors

4.3 Sustainable agricultural practices

Sustainable agriculture is crucial for poverty reduction, especially in regions like the Himalaya, where communities face challenges related to food security, environmental degradation, and economic vulnerability. By promoting practices that boost productivity, conserve natural resources, and improve livelihoods, sustainable agriculture can play a significant role in alleviating poverty in the Himalayan region (Das and Meher, 2019; Kimaro, 2019). Agroecology focuses on integrating ecological processes into agricultural systems, thereby enhancing biodiversity, soil health, and resilience to climate change (Tenzing et al., 2016). Practices such as agroforestry, terrace farming, and organic farming not only increase yields but also reduce reliance on external inputs, thereby improving the economic viability of farming and contributing to poverty reduction (Dhanta and Negi, 2018; FAO, 2019). Indigenous farming techniques, traditional crop varieties, and local agroecological knowledge are valuable assets that bolster the resilience of Himalayan agriculture (Gioli et al., 2019; IMI-FAO, 2019; Roy and Kumar, 2018). Enhancing local value chains, improving market access for smallholder farmers, and supporting sustainable agribusinesses can further boost income generation and create employment opportunities in rural areas (Mahapatra, 2018; Mukherjee, 2018; Rasul, 2016; Shrestha et al., 2012).

In the Himalaya, traditional farming systems involve the cultivation of food grains, millets, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, and vegetables primarily for subsistence. Farming methods, including ploughing, sowing, and harvesting, are largely traditional. In many Himalayan areas, the output from these traditional crops is insufficient, leading to issues of food insecurity and malnutrition. Our objective is to recommend sustainable agricultural practices that integrate the cultivation of both traditional and cash crops, tailored to the prevailing agro-climatic conditions.

4.4 Agro-climatic zones and the principal crops

The case study villages show rich agrobiodiversity across different agro-climatic zones, as shown in Table 3. In the subtropical zone (<1000 m), villages like Nainbag, Naugaon, Lakhamandal, and Sweel grow mangoes, paddy, wheat, and onions. The sub-temperate zone (1000-1600 m), including villages such as Bigasi, Saani, Hudoli, Chandeli, and Danda Kyari, produces tomatoes, paddy, pulses, and onions. In the temperate zone (1600-2200 m), villages like Gaichwan, Dewera, Haltadi, Kot, Sankari, Sidri, and Taluka mainly grow apples, pears, peaches, and potatoes. The cold zone (>2200 m) features villages such as Dati Mer, Dharkot, Gangad, and Osla, where Rajma, potatoes, wheat, Manduwa, and Fafara are cultivated. Wheat is grown in almost all agro-climatic zones whereas, its growing seasons vary from the summer to late summer. These villages are along major roads and trekking routes, which is why they are highlighted, though there are many more villages in the Tons River Basin.

Source: Household-level survey

4.5 Village-wise area, production, and productivity of the principal crops

We surveyed 50 households across five villages, with 10 households from each (Table 4). Our household-level survey provided data on crop area, production, and productivity for each village. In Sweel Village, located in the Kamal River valley, tomatoes, peaches, wheat, and rice are the main crops. Peaches and wheat have the highest production and productivity, and these crops are sold locally and regionally, while paddy and wheat are primarily grown for subsistence. In Gaichwan Village, apples and pears dominate with the highest area, production, and productivity, whereas potatoes, pulses, and red rice are grown for subsistence with lower figures.

In Sankari Village, apples and pears have the highest area, production, and productivity, while potatoes, pulses, and red rice have lower figures. Dharkot Village, due to its altitude, focuses on Rajma (pulses) and potatoes (vegetables) as the principal crops, with Chaulai, wheat, and Manduwa being traditional crops. The area, production, and productivity of potatoes, Rajma, and Chaulai are similar, whereas other crops have minimal area and production. Osla Village, situated at 2700 meters, the first village along the Tons River, grows Rajma, potatoes, Chaulai, wheat, Manduwa, and Fafara. Wheat is a post-summer crop, harvested in early July. Data indicates that villages in valleys and mid-altitudes have higher productivity compared to those in higher altitudes.

Source: Household-level survey

Figure 3 shows the distribution of fruits, vegetables, and pulses across different altitudes. Tomatoes are the principal crop in the valley regions, particularly along the Kamal Valley, with market availability at local and regional levels in Dehradun, Vikas Nagar, and Rishikesh. Apples are grown at middle to high altitudes, between 1200 m and 2000 m, with average market facilities. In the highland areas, Fafara, potatoes, and Rajma are the main crops.

4.6 Crop-wise productivity

Crop-wise productivity was analyzed to determine their values and future prospects (Table 5). Despite its small cultivation area, peach has the highest productivity in the Tons River valley, indicating that expanding its cultivation could be promising. Apple, which is economically valuable, also shows very high productivity and benefits from good transportation facilities and suitable markets in Uttar Pradesh. Pear and tomato are other promising crops with high productivity. Red rice, popular and substantially productive, is mainly grown in irrigated river valleys, particularly in the Kamal River valley and Rama Sarain area. Potatoes and Rajma in the highlands have substantial productivity, well-suited to the climate and landscape. Additionally, four traditional crops—Manduwa, Fafara, wheat, and Chaulai—are vital for livelihoods as staple foods in the Tons River valley.

Source: Household-level survey

4.7 Economic valuation of principal crops

Based on the production and current market rates (in USD) of principal crops, we calculated their economic values. The majority of households are engaged in cultivating apples, followed by peaches, pulses, and pears. Fewer than 20 households out of the 50 surveyed are involved in growing other crops (Table 6). Apples generate the highest economic value (per season) at $3,201,220, followed by peaches at $1,248,780, tomatoes at $365,854, pulses at $500,000, and pears at $457,317. These crops hold significant potential for sustaining livelihoods, suggesting that more arable land should be dedicated to their cultivation. Red rice also shows potential with an economic value of $102,439. The economic valuation of potatoes and Rajma is on the rise, indicating promising future prospects. Manduwa, Fafara, wheat, and Chaulai, while traditionally grown and vital as staple foods, have lower economic valuations. In terms of income per household, apples yield the highest at $80,031, followed by peaches at $41,625, tomatoes at $36,588, and pears at $15,244. Income per household from rice and potatoes is substantial, while traditional crops generate lower income per household.

*1 USD = 82 INR (July 2024): By authors

In these villages, input to farmland beyond human labour is minimal. The state forest department provides fruit trees at a subsidized rate, and the horticultural department offers technical assistance to farmers. Livestock contributes organic manure, ensuring that all crop products are organic. Family members working on the farms provide labour around the clock. Fruit plants require substantial input for the first 5-6 years until they start fruiting, after which they need less human labour.

4.8 Altitude-wise Agro-diversity and crop productivity

In the Tons River basin, agro-biodiversity and crop productivity vary significantly across different altitudes. The temperate zones exhibit the highest crop productivity at 377 q/ha, growing temperate fruits like apples, pears, peaches, plums, and walnuts, as well as potatoes and apricots. Both the sub-tropical and sub-temperate zones show high productivity at 102 q/ha each. In contrast, the cold zone, where traditional subsistence crops are cultivated, has the lowest productivity. Despite their lower yields, these crops have high nutritional and medicinal value. The stony and rugged terrain of the highlands contributes to the nominal production and productivity of crops in this region (Figure 4).

4.9 Market facilities

Market facilities vary significantly from the river valleys to the highlands, affecting the economic benefits farmers receive from selling their crops. Villages located in valleys and middle altitudes, such as Sweel in the Kamal Valley, benefit from easier market access due to proximity to main roads, leading to substantial net profits. Similarly, apples from Gaichwan village are successfully marketed to Kanpur city in Uttar Pradesh thanks to established market networks. In contrast, remote villages like Dharkot, Gangad, and Osla face challenges due to poor road networks, leading to high transportation costs and lower returns for farmers. Perishable crops like potatoes require immediate market access or cold storage, which is often lacking in highland areas despite the crop’s high potential. Similarly, while Rajma is a principal crop in these high altitudes, inadequate market facilities limit its economic benefits.

4.10 Livestock farming

Livestock plays a crucial role in the economy of the Tons River basin, serving as a supplementary source of income and support for farming. Each surveyed household owns at least two livestock, with cows predominant in the lower and middle altitudes, while goats, sheep, lambs, and horses are more common in higher altitudes. Some households also have oxen for ploughing and manure production. Generally, cows are stallfed in the house. Every house, a place is given to cows, which in the ground floor and is called ‘Ubra’. Goats are reared in the grasslands – in alpine pastureland during the winter and sub-tropical grassland during the summer. Livestock provides essential resources such as milk, meat, wool, and manure, contributing to organic farming. Those involved in homestay tourism use milk for preparing tea and coffee for guests. Additionally, goat herding offers substantial income, and highland farmers move their livestock to summer grazing grounds like Hari Ki Dun and Kedar Kantha for about four months. The goat herders are also involved in weaving traditional clothes by goat’s wool. Since this region is cold and during the winter season, it remains covered by snow, these woollen clothes are very popular, as they protect the people from severe cold waves. Abundant fodder is available in the temperate and sub-tropical grasslands and leaves of fodder trees, such as oak, are ample, livestock farming can boost the rural livelihood. Overall, livestock is pivotal for livelihood enhancement in the Tons region, benefiting from the region’s favourable grazing climate.

4.11 Tourism and homestay as a livelihood option

In the Tons River Basin, tourism and homestay offer significant livelihood opportunities alongside agriculture and horticulture. The region is rich in cultural, natural, and adventure tourism. Cultural tourism thrives around key sites like Lakhamandal and Hanol, known for their ancient Shiva temples and connections to the epic tales of the Pandavas and Kauravas. Highland communities revere the Kauravas, while river valley residents honour the Pandavas, with notable sites such as the temple of Karna in Dewera attracting pilgrims. The area also hosts numerous fairs and festivals, drawing visitors year-round. Natural tourism flourishes due to the region’s scenic beauty and pleasant summer climate, making it a popular destination. Adventure tourism is highlighted by renowned trekking routes like Hari Ki Dun and Kedar Kantha, which attract trekkers, particularly in the summer. The accommodation and transportation facilities in the Tons River Basin are inadequate, but homestay tourism holds significant potential for
enhancing livelihoods, especially in remote areas. A survey of 10 households revealed that while homestay facilities in lower altitudes are relatively well-developed, with sufficient rooms and amenities, the situation in higher altitudes is less favourable. There are fewer homestays
in these regions, and the available facilities and rates are not as competitive. Across the 10 surveyed households, there were 73 homestays, with a total of 114 tourist visits in 2023. The average charge was $10.24 per person per day, generating a total income of $1,293.90 for the year (Table 7). Due to the poor quality of homestay facilities, many tourists resort to camping with tents in available spaces during their treks.

*1 USD = 82 INR (July 2024). Source: Household-level survey

Figure 5 highlights two homestays located in Gangad and Gaichwan villages. These wooden, intricately carved homes are designed to withstand the region’s snowy winters, offering warmth and comfort. Despite similarities in room sizes and architectural styles, the quality of amenities and charges for the homestays differ between mainstream and remote areas. Both homestays are set amidst agricultural fields, where seasonal vegetables, food grains, and fruits are organically grown. The homestay owners provide tourists with fresh produce from their farms. Figure (a) shows Fafara, a seasonal vegetable cultivated near the homestay, while Figure (b) depicts apple trees surrounding the homestay.

5. DISCUSSION

In this paper, we evaluated strategies for enhancing livelihoods in the Tons River basin of the Garhwal Himalaya through agro-biodiversity conservation, sustainable agriculture, livestock farming, and homestay tourism (Figure 6). Given the region’s rich agro-climate and favourable conditions, these approaches have significant potential for sustainable livelihood improvement. Currently, local agriculture consists primarily of subsistence farming with traditional crops such as millets, pulses, food grains, fruits, and vegetables. Despite their importance, the output from these agricultural practices is often insufficient. To achieve more sustainable livelihoods, it is essential to modernize these crops and shift towards more commercial practices, thereby increasing farmers’ economic stability.

The research findings reveal that the Tons River basin has rich agro-biodiversity, with 47 crop races and cultivars currently grown in the region. Many of these crops are rainfed, although some, like red rice, are irrigated and thrive in the river valleys where water is plentiful. Red rice is particularly popular for its taste and nutritional value and is served to tourists by those running homestay operations. Tomatoes, which are primarily cultivated in the lower altitude valley regions, require intensive farming practices. Peach production and productivity are notably high in the valleys and middle altitudes, indicating that sustainable peach farming could significantly enhance livelihoods. Fruit cultivation in the middle and higher altitudes (1200 m to 2000 m) holds considerable promise, with apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, and walnut being particularly beneficial.

Among the crops, apples stand out for their high income value, with both production and productivity being the highest in the region. Walnut cultivation is also prominent in the Tons River basin, although many walnuts are difficult to crack, indicating a need for more sophisticated varieties. The lack of market facilities and the perishable nature of many fruits lead to significant waste. Despite this, traditionally grown crops like potato, Rajma, and Fafara play a crucial role in sustaining livelihoods due to their high nutritional value, making their conservation important. Additionally, the production of millets has been increasing, partly due to a Government of India initiative promoting millet consumption. Farmers involved in homestay tourism offer traditional dishes such as Manduwa Ki Roti and Fafara Ka Saag to tourists, showcasing the region’s rich culinary heritage.

Cultivation of apples has emerged as a key economic activity in the Tons River basin, earning it the status of an “economic tree.” Inspired by the success of apple production in Himachal Pradesh, neighbouring farmers have adopted similar practices, supported by state subsidies. This has led to a substantial increase in apple cultivation, with notable growth in area, production, and productivity. Alongside apples, the cultivation of pear, peach, plum, walnut, and apricot is also gaining momentum, with these fruits showing significant market value.

Adequate market facilities are crucial for farmers to realize the full benefits of their crop products, yet the remote location of the Tons River basin poses significant challenges. Market facilities are relatively better in the river valleys compared to the highlands, where access is particularly difficult. For instance, Osla village is accessible only via a five-kilometre trek, and Dharkot, despite being on the road, suffers from poor road conditions year-round. The lack of cold storage facilities exacerbates the issue, as perishable vegetables and fruits often spoil if not sold quickly, leading to losses for farmers. Many prefer traditional crops like millets to avoid the risks associated with perishable cash crops. High transportation costs further erode profits, compelling farmers to sell their produce at a loss. Improving market networks, constructing cold storage facilities tailored to production levels, and enhancing transportation infrastructure could significantly improve livelihood options in the region.

Livestock farming, an allied activity to agriculture, represents a promising livelihood option in the Tons River basin. While every household maintains one or more livestock, the development of this sector remains modest despite favourable climatic conditions and ample fodder. The region supports a rich diversity of faunal resources, including cows, oxen, goats, sheep, lambs, and horses. These animals contribute significantly by providing milk and dairy products, manure for fertilizing fields, and assistance in ploughing. Livestock is integral to agricultural activities, enhancing the overall productivity and sustainability of farming practices in the basin.

Homestay tourism holds significant potential for enhancing livelihoods in the Tons River basin, given the region’s appeal for trekking—especially to Hari Ki Dun and Kedar Kantha—and its rich cultural and natural attractions. The temples of Mahasu Dev, Lakhamandal, and Karna add to the area’s cultural tourism, while the natural beauty supports tourism throughout the year (Sati 2021). Homestay tourism not only boosts farmers’ incomes and the regional economy but also promotes local culture and cuisine. Despite the existing practice of homestay tourism, current facilities are inadequate and often poor, suggesting that improving these accommodations could further benefit both the local community and visitors.

In other Himalayan regions and mountainous areas worldwide, livelihood enhancement through agro-biodiversity conservation, sustainable agriculture, livestock farming, and homestay tourism has gained considerable momentum. While some areas have seen significant development in these aspects, the Tons River basin remains underdeveloped in this regard. It is crucial for both the government and local communities to focus on these livelihood enhancement strategies to ensure that farmers can reap the benefits of their hard work and achieve sustainable livelihoods.

6. CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that the livelihood of rural people in the Tons River basin largely depends on traditional agriculture, which often falls short of providing adequate food for even two meals a day. Recently, some farmers have started cultivating high-value fruits and vegetables, such as tomato, apple, potato, and Rajma. Those involved in these crops are experiencing improved income and sustainable livelihoods, while others continue to face food insecurity. The Tons River basin is rich in agro-biodiversity and has favourable climatic conditions for growing a variety of crop races and cultivars. Our research underscores the importance of conserving this agrobiodiversity to enhance food security and livelihoods in the region.

A large portion of the Tons River basin relies on rainfed agriculture, which supports many crop races under these conditions. In the highlands, high atmospheric water vapor helps protect crops from drought. Sustainable agriculture offers another pathway for enhancing livelihoods by integrating both cash and traditional crops according to the region’s agro-climate. The basin can be divided into three agro-climatic zones: sub-tropical for tomato production, sub-temperate for apple production, and temperate for potato and Rajma production. Other crops can be cultivated in mixed cropping systems within these zones. These crops have high production and economic value, with substantial government subsidies available to support their growth. Additionally, promoting livestock farming and homestay tourism can further enhance sustainable livelihoods. Once established, fruit cultivation and homestay tourism require minimal ongoing input while yielding high returns. Improving market networks, transportation facilities, and cold storage infrastructure will significantly boost farmers’ livelihoods. Cultivating fruits will not only contribute to generate income and support a sustainable economy but also restoring the fragile ecosystem in the region. Sustainable use of timber and non-timber forest products can enhance rural livelihood along with agriculture, livestock, and tourism activities.

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